Unit: 4 

Technology and Deployment 

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is a technology that captures carbon dioxide (CO2) from power plants and other industrial sources before it is released into the atmosphere, and then stores it underground. CCS is seen as a way to reduce CO2 emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change.

There are three main components to CCS : 

Carbon capture: Carbon dioxide is captured from the flue gases of power plants or other industrial sources using various technologies such as amine-based solvents, chilled ammonia, or solid sorbents.

Transport: Once captured, the CO2 is compressed and transported to a storage site, typically by pipeline.

Sequestration: The CO2 is injected into deep underground rock formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline formations, or unmineable coal seams. The CO2 is trapped underground by the overlying rock layers and is not expected to leak out.

CCS is still considered an emerging technology and its implementation is still in early stages. However, several pilot projects have been undertaken in different parts of the world to demonstrate its feasibility. The high costs, lack of infrastructure, and potential leakage are some of the major challenges facing the technology.

Carbon capture in cement manufacture refers to the process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced during the production of cement, which is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Cement production is a significant source of CO2 emissions because it requires the heating of limestone to high temperatures, a process known as calcination, which releases CO2.

There are several ways to capture CO2 emissions during cement production:

Pre-calciner capture: Carbon dioxide can be captured from the pre-calciner, which is the part of the cement kiln where the limestone is heated before it enters the calciner.

Post-combustion capture: Carbon dioxide can be captured from the flue gases after combustion, which is the process of burning fuel to heat the kiln.

Oxyfuel technology: Oxyfuel technology involves burning fuel with pure oxygen instead of air, which produces a concentrated stream of CO2 that can be captured more easily.

Calcium looping: This is a two-step process that involves capturing CO2 by using a calcium oxide (CaO) sorbent, which reacts with CO2 to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The calcium carbonate is then heated to release CO2, which can be captured and stored.

It's worth noting that Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) in cement manufacturing is still in the early stages of development and not yet widely implemented. High costs, lack of infrastructure and scaling challenges are some of the main barriers to the implementation of CCS in cement manufacturing. 

Carbon Capture in Petrochemical Industries : 

Carbon capture in petrochemical industries is similar to carbon capture in power plants, but with some differences. In petrochemical industries, carbon capture is used to separate and capture CO2 from the synthesis gas (syngas) produced by the steam-methane reforming process. The captured CO2 can then be used for enhanced oil recovery or as feedstock for the production of chemicals and fuels.

The process of carbon capture in petrochemical industries typically involves the use of amine-based solvents, which are able to selectively absorb CO2 from the syngas. The absorbed CO2 is then removed from the solvent and compressed for transport and storage or use.

Capturing CO2 from petrochemical industries has some advantages over capturing CO2 from power plants. For example, the CO2 captured from petrochemical industries is of a higher purity and pressure, which reduces the costs of compression and transport. Additionally, the use of the captured CO2 as a feedstock in the production of chemicals and fuels can provide an additional revenue stream.

However, carbon capture in petrochemical industries also faces some challenges, such as the complexity of the process and the costs associated with the development and implementation of the technology.

Modalities and Procedures : 

The modalities and procedures for carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) vary depending on the specific type of project, but generally include the following steps:

Feasibility study: This involves conducting a detailed analysis of the potential CCS site, including an assessment of the geology, hydrodynamics, and other characteristics of the site to determine its suitability for CO2 storage.

Permitting and regulatory compliance: Before a CCS project can proceed, it must comply with all relevant federal, state, and local regulations and obtain the necessary permits and approvals.

Carbon capture: This involves using various technologies to capture CO2 from power plants or industrial sources, such as amine-based solvents, chilled ammonia, or solid sorbents.

Transport: Once captured, the CO2 is compressed and transported to the storage site, typically by pipeline.

Sequestration: The CO2 is injected into deep underground rock formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline formations, or unmineable coal seams.

Monitoring and verification: Ongoing monitoring and verification of the storage site is necessary to ensure that the CO2 remains securely stored and that there are no leaks or other issues.

Decommissioning: Once the project is completed, the site must be decommissioned and the area restored to its original condition.

It's worth noting that CCS projects are complex and require significant resources, expertise, and coordination among various stakeholders. Additionally, the cost of CCS can be high, and it's currently not widely implemented, however it is considered as a promising technology to reduce the emission of CO2.

Fossil Power Generation with CCS: Policy 

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a technology that captures carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from power plants and other industrial sources, and stores them underground. This technology is seen as a way to reduce the carbon footprint of fossil fuel power generation, and is considered a key mitigation strategy in the fight against climate change.

Policies that support the development and deployment of CCS include government funding for research and development, tax credits for companies that implement CCS technology, and regulations that require power plants to capture a certain percentage of their CO2 emissions.

In order to make CCS economically viable, it is important that a price is put on carbon emissions, either through a carbon tax or a cap-and-trade system. This would ensure that power companies would have an economic incentive to invest in CCS technology.

It's worth noting that CCS is not yet widely deployed, but several pilot projects have been undertaken around the world and are ongoing. Some governments and organizations are also investing in CCS technology to provide funding and support for further developments and deployment.

Development for Technology and Deployment 

The development of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology involves a combination of research and development (R&D) in areas such as capturing CO2 from power plants and industrial sources, transporting it to storage sites, and safely and securely storing it underground.

To support the development of CCS technology, governments and organizations around the world have invested in R&D through funding programs and grants. For example, the US Department of Energy has a program called the National Carbon Capture Center, which provides funding for R&D in CCS technology. In addition, private companies and research institutions are also investing in CCS R&D.

Once CCS technology has been developed, it must be deployed at power plants and other industrial facilities. This requires significant investment in infrastructure, such as pipelines to transport CO2 to storage sites, and storage facilities to hold the CO2. Governments and organizations can support deployment by providing funding and incentives for companies to implement CCS technology, such as tax credits, subsidies and regulations that require power plants to capture a certain percentage of their CO2 emissions.

Additionally, governments and international organizations can collaborate to establish policies that support the deployment of CCS, such as regulations and targets for CO2 emissions reduction, and a carbon price to incentivize the use of CCS technology.

It's worth noting that CCS is still in early stages of development and deployment, and more work is needed in order to make it a cost-effective and widely-used technology.

Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide: 

CO2 Properties and Geological Storage, CO2 Storage through Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery, Shale Gas, storage Options 

Geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) is a method of capturing CO2 emissions from power plants and other industrial sources and storing it underground in geologic formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifers, and unmineable coal seams. The CO2 is injected into the formation under pressure, and it is hoped that the CO2 will be trapped underground and not escape into the atmosphere.

The suitability of a particular geologic formation for CO2 storage depends on several factors, such as the porosity and permeability of the rock, the depth of the formation, and the presence of natural seals that can prevent the CO2 from escaping. The formation also needs to be able to safely contain the CO2 for hundreds or thousands of years.

One of the main advantages of geological storage is that it has the potential to be a long-term solution for CO2 storage. Once the CO2 is injected into the formation, it should be trapped underground for hundreds to thousands of years, depending on the characteristics of the formation.

However, there are also some challenges associated with geological storage. One of them is the cost, as it requires significant investments in infrastructure, such as pipelines and injection wells. Additionally, there are also concerns about the potential for the CO2 to leak out of the formation and into the atmosphere, and about the potential for the CO2 to migrate into drinking water aquifers.

Despite these challenges, several pilot projects have been undertaken around the world to test the feasibility of geological storage, and more research and development is ongoing. 

CO2 Properties and Geological Storage : 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless, and non-toxic gas that is commonly used in industry, and is a byproduct of burning fossil fuels. When CO2 is injected into a geologic formation for storage, it exists in a supercritical state, which means it is between a gas and a liquid and has properties of both.

The properties of CO2 that are relevant to geological storage include its density, viscosity, and solubility. CO2 has a lower density than most other fluids, which means that it will tend to rise and migrate upward through the formation. Its viscosity is also relatively low, which means it can flow easily through porous rock. CO2 is also highly soluble in water, which means that it can dissolve in underground water reservoirs and migrate through the formation.

The suitability of a particular geologic formation for CO2 storage depends on several factors, such as the porosity and permeability of the rock, the depth of the formation, and the presence of natural seals that can prevent the CO2 from escaping. The formation also needs to be able to safely contain the CO2 for hundreds or thousands of years.

Formations that are considered good candidates for CO2 storage are typically deep, saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and unmineable coal seams. These types of formations have the necessary characteristics of porosity, permeability, and seals to trap and contain the CO2.

It's worth noting that monitoring, verification, and accounting (MVA) protocols are used to ensure the safe and secure storage of CO2 in geologic formations, and that the CO2 is not leaking into the atmosphere. 

CO2 Storage through Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery : 

Enhanced hydrocarbon recovery (EHR) is a method of storing carbon dioxide (CO2) underground by injecting it into oil and gas reservoirs to increase the amount of oil and gas that can be recovered. The CO2 is injected into the reservoir, where it acts like a "miscible" fluid, meaning it mixes with the oil and gas and causes it to become more mobile. This allows more oil and gas to be recovered from the reservoir than would be possible with traditional recovery methods.

The CO2 that is injected into the reservoir is typically captured from industrial sources, such as power plants, and is transported to the site of the oil and gas reservoir via pipelines. Once the CO2 is injected into the reservoir, it is expected to be trapped underground for hundreds to thousands of years, depending on the characteristics of the formation.

EHR is considered to be a form of "sequestration" because the CO2 is injected into the reservoir and is not released into the atmosphere. It is also considered to be a form of "utilization" because the CO2 is used to recover more oil and gas from the reservoir.

One of the main advantages of EHR is that it has the potential to be a cost-effective solution for CO2 storage, as it can be done in conjunction with oil and gas production, and the injected CO2 can be used to increase the amount of hydrocarbon recovery.

However, there are also some challenges associated with EHR. One of them is the cost, as it requires significant investments in infrastructure, such as pipelines and injection wells. Additionally, there are also concerns about the potential for the CO2 to leak out of the formation and into the atmosphere, and about the potential for the CO2 to migrate into drinking water aquifers.

Despite these challenges, several pilot projects have been undertaken around the world to test the feasibility of EHR, and more research and development is ongoing. 

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) : 

Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) is a method of increasing the amount of oil that can be recovered from a reservoir by injecting fluids, such as water, natural gas, or carbon dioxide (CO2), into the reservoir to increase the pressure and mobility of the oil. EOR can increase the recovery rate of a reservoir by an additional 10-40% of the original oil in place.

There are several methods of EOR, but the three most common are:

Thermal recovery: Involves injecting steam into the reservoir to heat the oil and make it more mobile.

Gas injection: Involves injecting natural gas, such as methane, into the reservoir to increase the pressure and drive the oil to the surface.

Carbon dioxide injection: Involves injecting CO2 into the reservoir to increase the pressure and drive the oil to the surface. This method is also known as CO2-EOR.

CO2-EOR has been considered as a potential method for carbon capture and storage (CCS) as the captured CO2 is injected in the oil reservoir and it's expected to be trapped underground for hundreds to thousands of years. It's considered as a form of "sequestration" because the CO2 is injected into the reservoir and is not released into the atmosphere. It is also considered to be a form of "utilization" because the CO2 is used to recover more oil from the reservoir.

However, CO2-EOR is not widely used yet and it's still in the early stages of development and deployment. There are several challenges associated with CO2-EOR, such as the cost and the potential for CO2 leakage and migration. Additionally, it's worth noting that CO2-EOR can only be used in reservoirs where the temperature and pressure conditions are suitable for CO2 injection. 

Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery : 

Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM) is a method of increasing the amount of methane that can be recovered from coal seams by injecting carbon dioxide (CO2) into the coal seam. The CO2 acts as a solvent, dissolving the methane and making it more mobile. The methane is then produced to the surface via a well. 

This method of methane recovery is considered as a form of "sequestration" because the CO2 is injected into the coal seam and is not released into the atmosphere. It is also considered to be a form of "utilization" because the CO2 is used to recover more methane from the coal seam.

The main advantage of ECBM is that it has the potential to increase the amount of methane that can be recovered from coal seams, which can be used as a source of clean energy. Additionally, it can also reduce the overall emissions of methane from coal mines, which is a potent greenhouse gas.

However, ECBM is not widely used yet and it's still in the early stages of development and deployment. There are several challenges associated with ECBM, such as the cost and the potential for CO2 leakage and migration. Additionally, it's worth noting that ECBM can only be used in coal seams where the temperature and pressure conditions are suitable for CO2 injection.

It's also important to note that while ECBM can provide a way to recover more methane, it doesn't change the fact that burning coal, whether it be for electricity or for methane recovery, will still release carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas and contribute to climate change.

Shale Gas : 

Shale gas is a type of natural gas that is found trapped within shale rock formations deep beneath the Earth's surface. It is extracted by a process called hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking," which involves injecting a mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into the shale rock at high pressure to create fractures that allow the trapped gas to flow out.

Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in recent years, particularly in the United States, where it has revolutionized the natural gas industry and has significantly increased the domestic natural gas supply.

The extraction of shale gas has been a controversial issue, as there are concerns about the environmental impact of fracking. These concerns include water contamination, air pollution, and the release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. There are also concerns about the potential for fracking to cause earthquakes.

Despite these concerns, many countries have begun to explore the potential for shale gas extraction, as it is seen as a way to increase domestic energy production, reduce dependence on foreign oil and gas, and create jobs.

It's worth noting that while shale gas is a cleaner-burning fossil fuel than coal, it still contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change when it's burned to generate electricity or heat. Additionally, the extraction process of shale gas also has a significant environmental impact that needs to be carefully considered.