Date:15-12-2022 Paper Solution | Global Warming and Climate Change

• Subject Code:3161312 

• Date:15-12-2022 

• Paper solved by Om sonawane 

Q.1 

(a) Explain the terms weather and climate. Justify if both the terms can be used interchangeably or not.

Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions of a specific place, such as temperature, precipitation, wind, and cloud cover. Climate, on the other hand, refers to the long-term patterns of weather in a specific area, including temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns.

While weather and climate are related, they are not interchangeable. Weather refers to the conditions that are present at a specific time and place, while climate refers to the long-term patterns and averages of weather in a specific area. For example, the weather in a specific city on a specific day may be sunny and warm, while the climate of that city is characterized by a warm and dry summers, and mild winters.

(b) What is meant by climate variability and climate change.

Climate variability refers to the natural fluctuations in the Earth's climate over a period of time. These fluctuations can occur on a variety of timescales, from daily weather patterns to long-term changes in the Earth's orbit. Examples of climate variability include El Niño and La Niña, which are natural variations in ocean temperatures that affect weather patterns around the globe, as well as the Milankovitch cycles, which are changes in the Earth's orbit that can affect climate on a much longer timescale.

Climate change, on the other hand, refers to long-term changes in the Earth's climate that are caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Climate change results in an increase in the Earth's average surface temperature and can lead to changes in precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and more extreme weather events. The term "climate change" is often used to refer specifically to the warming of the Earth's surface that has occurred over the past century, which is primarily caused by the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

(c) Explain the significance of Global warming and Climate change in Environmental Engineering field.

Global warming and climate change are significant issues in the field of environmental engineering because they have the potential to cause significant environmental, social, and economic impacts.

Global warming, which is the increase in the Earth's average surface temperature due to the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, can lead to changes in precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and more extreme weather events. These changes can have a variety of impacts on the environment and human society, such as increased heatwaves, droughts, and flooding, which can lead to damage to infrastructure, loss of crops, and other negative consequences.

Climate change also has significant implications for the field of environmental engineering, as it can affect the design, construction, and operation of infrastructure and other systems. For example, rising sea levels can affect the design of coastal infrastructure, such as ports, airports, and seawalls, and increased extreme weather events can affect the design and operation of power grids, water treatment systems, and other critical infrastructure.

To address these challenges, environmental engineers work on developing and implementing sustainable solutions for energy production and consumption, water management, waste management, and transportations. They also work on designing and building resilient infrastructure that can withstand the impacts of climate change and global warming. Additionally, they help in the development of policies and regulations that promote sustainable practices and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Q.2 

(a) Explain Greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is a process by which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, trap heat from the sun and warm the Earth's surface. The most important greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. These gases act like a blanket, trapping heat and warming the Earth's surface. This is a natural process that keeps the Earth's temperature at a level that is suitable for life.

When the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases, the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, and the Earth's surface temperature rises. This is known as global warming. The primary cause of the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. These activities release large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which trap more heat and warm the Earth's surface.

The greenhouse effect is important for the maintenance of life on Earth as it keeps the planet's temperature at a level that is suitable for life. However, an excessive increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases caused by human activities can lead to global warming, which is associated with negative impacts on the environment and human society, such as sea level rise, more frequent heat waves and droughts, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and other impacts.

(b) How does energy gets balanced on the Earth?

Energy balance on Earth refers to the balance between the energy that the Earth receives from the sun and the energy that the Earth radiates back into space. The sun is the primary source of energy for the Earth, providing the planet with light and heat. The Earth's atmosphere and surface absorb some of this energy and then radiate it back into space as heat.

The Earth's atmosphere is mostly transparent to the visible light from the sun, which allows most of it to reach the Earth's surface. However, it absorbs a significant portion of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and surface of the Earth. Some of the energy is reflected back to the space by clouds, snow, and ice, known as albedo.

The energy absorbed by the Earth's surface is then re-emitted as heat, in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, absorb some of this long-wave infrared radiation, trapping heat and warming the Earth's surface. This is known as the greenhouse effect.

It's important to note that the Earth's energy balance is not always in equilibrium, meaning that the incoming energy from the sun does not always equal the outgoing energy radiated back into space. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, the Earth's temperature will rise and cause global warming. Similarly, when the outgoing energy is greater than the incoming energy, the Earth's temperature will drop and cause global cooling.

Overall, the energy balance on Earth is a complex process that is affected by many factors, including the sun's energy output, the Earth's orbit, the Earth's rotation, the Earth's atmosphere, and the Earth's surface. Scientists are still studying the Earth's energy balance in order to better understand the causes of climate change and develop ways to mitigate its impacts.

(c) State the elements of the Climate. Explain any two in detail.

The elements of climate are the various physical characteristics of a region's weather, including temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity. These elements are used to describe and understand the climate of a particular area. Some of the key elements of climate include:

Temperature: The average and range of temperatures in a particular area. Temperature can be measured in various ways, such as air temperature, surface temperature, and ocean temperature.

Precipitation: The amount and type of precipitation in a particular area, including rain, snow, sleet, and hail.

Wind: The direction and speed of the wind in a particular area.

Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air in a particular area.

Cloud cover: The amount and type of clouds in a particular area.

Solar radiation: The amount of solar radiation received in a particular area.

Air pressure: The force exerted by the weight of air on the Earth's surface.

Storms and extreme events: The frequency and intensity of storms and other extreme weather events in a particular area.

Two elements of climate that I can explain in detail are:

Temperature: Temperature is one of the most important elements of climate and is measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. It is the most commonly used measurement to describe the climate of a particular area. Temperature can vary greatly depending on location, time of year, and altitude. For example, the temperature at the equator is generally warmer than the temperature at the poles. Temperature is also affected by the Earth's rotation and revolution around the sun, which causes the seasons.

Precipitation: Precipitation is another important element of climate. It refers to the amount and type of water that falls to the Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, sleet, and hail. Precipitation is measured in millimeters or inches and varies greatly depending on location and time of year. For example, areas near the equator generally receive more precipitation than areas near the poles. Some areas also receive more precipitation during certain seasons, such as monsoons or rainy seasons. Climate change is also affecting the patterns of precipitation, leading to changes in the amount and timing of precipitation in some regions.

Or 

(c) Compare and contrast the natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change.

Climate change can be caused by both natural and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors.

Natural causes of climate change include changes in the Earth's orbit, volcanic eruptions, and solar variability. The Milankovitch cycles, which are changes in the Earth's orbit that occur over thousands of years, can affect the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface and can lead to changes in climate. Volcanic eruptions can also affect the climate by releasing large amounts of ash and other particles into the atmosphere, which can block some of the sun's radiation and cool the Earth's surface. Solar variability, which includes changes in the sun's energy output, can also affect the Earth's climate.

Anthropogenic (human-caused) causes of climate change include the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which trap heat and warm the Earth's surface. Deforestation, which is the clearing of forests for agriculture or other uses, also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and reduces the amount of carbon that is stored in the Earth's vegetation. Agriculture also has an impact on climate change by releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas, from the digestion of livestock and from the use of certain farming practices.

Overall, while natural causes of climate change have occurred throughout the Earth's history, the current warming trend is primarily caused by human activities, particularly the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. While natural causes of climate change occur over very long periods of time, anthropogenic causes are happening at a much faster rate and are leading to a much faster warming rate.

Q.3 

(a) Give the statistical contribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 

Greenhouse gases are responsible for trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the Earth's surface. The most important greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the primary greenhouse gas responsible for global warming is carbon dioxide, which accounts for about 78% of the total warming effect caused by greenhouse gases. Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas, accounting for about 17% of the total warming effect. Nitrous oxide is responsible for about 6% of the total warming effect, while the remaining greenhouse gases, such as ozone and water vapor, account for the remaining 1%.

It's worth noting that these are approximate figures that are subject to change depending on the specific scenario and assumptions made. Additionally, the contribution of these gases to warming is not linear as the absorption of radiation by gases depends on the quantity and the frequency of the radiation.

It is worth noting that the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere has been increasing due to human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. The concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by about 40% since the industrial revolution, and the concentration of methane has increased by about 260% during the same period. These increases in greenhouse gas concentrations are primarily responsible for the observed warming of the Earth's surface over the past century.

(b) During past changes in the climate, many forms of flora and fauna were able to migrate to areas where the new climate suited them. Why could this option not be available to many species as the climate changes in the future?

During past changes in the climate, many forms of flora and fauna were able to migrate to areas where the new climate suited them because the changes occurred over a relatively long period of time, allowing species to adapt and migrate gradually. However, the current rate of climate change is much faster than it has been in the past, and is projected to continue to accelerate in the future. This means that many species may not have enough time to adapt to the changing conditions or to migrate to new areas where the climate is more suitable for them.

There are several reasons why species may not be able to migrate to new areas as the climate changes in the future:

Habitat Fragmentation: Human activities such as urbanization, agriculture, and resource extraction have fragmented many habitats and reduced the amount of suitable habitat available for species to migrate to. This makes it difficult for species to find new areas to live in as the climate changes.

Climate Change Is Global: Climate change is happening all over the world, and species may not be able to find suitable areas to migrate to that are close by. They may have to travel long distances, which can be difficult or impossible due to obstacles such as roads, cities, and other human developments.

Climate change is also happening in the oceans: The oceans are also affected by climate change, and many marine species may not be able to migrate to new areas as the ocean's temperature and chemistry change.

Human-induced changes in global patterns: Human activities, such as trade and transport, have led to the spread of invasive species, which can outcompete native species, making it difficult for native species to migrate to new areas.

Loss Of Genetic Diversity: Climate change can lead to a loss of genetic diversity within populations, making them less adaptable to changing conditions.

Overall, the current rapid rate of climate change, combined with the impact of human activities on the environment, makes it difficult for many species to adapt or migrate to new areas, putting them at risk of extinction.

(c) Elaborate any one case study as an evidence of Climate change.

One example of a case study that provides evidence of climate change is the Arctic sea ice decline. The Arctic sea ice is an important indicator of climate change because it reflects the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface and helps regulate the Earth's temperature.

Over the past several decades, the Arctic sea ice has been declining at an alarming rate. According to data from the National Snow and Ice Data Center, the Arctic sea ice has declined by about 12% per decade since the 1970s, and the rate of decline has accelerated in recent years. The sea ice extent in September, which is the minimum sea ice extent each year, has decreased by about 13.5% per decade.

The decline in Arctic sea ice is caused by global warming, which is primarily caused by the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. As the Earth's temperature increases, the Arctic sea ice melts, which in turn causes the Earth's temperature to increase even more, creating a positive feedback loop.

The decline of Arctic sea ice has a number of impacts on the Arctic ecosystem and the global climate. For example, it can affect the hunting and breeding patterns of Arctic animals, such as polar bears, walruses, and seals, and can also affect the livelihoods of indigenous people who rely on these animals for food and cultural practices. Additionally, the loss of sea ice can also affect the ocean currents and weather patterns, which can have global consequences.

The Arctic sea ice decline is a clear and strong evidence of the global warming and the impacts of climate change. It illustrates how the human activities are changing the Earth's climate and causing negative impacts on the environment, wildlife, and human society.

OR

Q.3 (a) What is the COP?

COP stands for the "Conference of the Parties" and refers to the annual United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) conference, where countries that are party to the UNFCCC gather to negotiate and discuss actions to address climate change.

The first COP meeting was held in 1995, and since then, COPs have been held annually (with the exception of 2012) to assess progress in dealing with climate change, to negotiate the implementation of the Convention and any other protocols that may be adopted, and to negotiate and implement the Paris Agreement adopted in 2015.

The COP is attended by representatives of all Parties to the Convention, which includes 197 countries and the European Union. The main objective of the COP is to review the implementation of the Convention and any other protocols that may be adopted, to negotiate new commitments and agreements, and to coordinate and cooperate on climate change action. The COP also provides an opportunity for Parties to share information and best practices, and to engage in dialogue with other Parties, organizations and stakeholders.

The COP also holds a subsidiary body for scientific and technological advice (SBSTA), and a subsidiary body for implementation (SBI) to provide technical and scientific support to the COP.

The COP is the main international forum for dealing with climate change, and it plays a key role in shaping global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

(b) State the objectives of IPCC.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an international body established by the United Nations (UN) in 1988. The main objectives of the IPCC are to:

Provide scientific information on climate change: The IPCC assesses the latest scientific, technical, and socio-economic information related to climate change, including the causes, impacts, and potential responses. It provides a comprehensive and neutral assessment of the state of knowledge on climate change and its impacts, and serves as a reference for policymakers, scientists, and the public.

Facilitate international cooperation: The IPCC provides a platform for governments, scientists, and other stakeholders to cooperate and share information on climate change. It facilitates the exchange of knowledge and best practices on climate change mitigation and adaptation, and helps to build capacity in developing countries to address climate change.

Support policy-making: The IPCC provides policy-relevant information to support decision-making on climate change at the national, regional, and international levels. Its assessments are designed.

Enhance public awareness: The IPCC also plays a role in raising public awareness about the science and impacts of climate change, and in promoting understanding and engagement of the public and other stakeholders on the issues related to climate change.

Encourage Adaptation And Mitigation: The IPCC works to identify the best ways to adapt to the impacts of climate change, and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to prevent the worst effects of global warming. It helps to identify the best practices in mitigation and adaptation and provides guidance on how to implement them.

Overall, the IPCC's main objective is to provide the scientific knowledge necessary to understand and address the challenges of climate change in a comprehensive, neutral and policy-relevant way to support decision.

(c) Explain the consequences on economy of a country in times of extreme weather events.

Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, and storms, can have significant consequences on a country's economy. The effects can be both short-term and long-term, and can vary depending on the specific event and the country's vulnerability. Some of the possible consequences of extreme weather events on a country's economy include:

Loss Of Infrastructure And Property: Extreme weather events can cause damage to buildings, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure, which can be costly to repair or replace. The loss of property can also disrupt economic activities and harm businesses and livelihoods.

Agricultural Losses: Extreme weather events can also damage crops and livestock, which can lead to reduced agricultural production and lower food security. This can affect the agricultural sector of the economy as well as the food security of the country.

Disruption of transportation and communication: Extreme weather events can also disrupt transportation and communication systems, which can impede the movement of goods and people and impede economic activities.

Loss Of Tourism: Extreme weather events can also harm the tourism industry by making it difficult for people to travel and by damaging tourist destinations.

Increase In Energy Consumption: Extreme weather events can also increase energy consumption as people use more energy to cool or heat their homes, businesses and other buildings. This can also increase the country's energy costs.

Insurance Claims And Costs: Extreme weather events also lead to increased insurance claims and costs, which can affect the economy by increasing the costs for businesses and individuals.

Human Costs: Extreme weather events can also have a severe human cost, including injury, illness, and death, which can have a significant impact on a country's economy by reducing the productivity and quality of life of its citizens. 

Overall, extreme weather events can have a significant and lasting impact on a country's economy. They can damage infrastructure and property, disrupt transportation and communication systems, harm agricultural production and tourism, and have a severe human cost.These events can also increase energy consumption, insurance claims and costs, which can impede the country's economic growth and development.

Q.4 

(a) What is meant by a climate model?

A climate model is a mathematical representation of the Earth's climate system that is used to simulate past, present, and future climate conditions. Climate models are used to understand and predict the Earth's climate and how it might change in response to various human and natural forcings such as greenhouse gases emissions, solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, and land-use changes.

Climate models use mathematical equations that represent the physical, chemical, and biological processes that drive the climate system, such as the exchange of energy and moisture between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and cryosphere. These equations are combined with observational data and other information to create a comprehensive and integrated model of the Earth's climate system.

Climate models are used to simulate a wide range of climate conditions, from global-scale patterns such as temperature and precipitation to regional-scale features such as storms and sea level rise. They are also used to simulate the effects of different scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions on the climate, which can help policymakers and other stakeholders understand the potential consequences of different policy options.

Climate models come in a range of complexity, from simple models that focus on a single aspect of the climate system to complex models that represent the interactions between all of the Earth's major climate components. The more complex models are generally considered to be more accurate and reliable, but they also require more computational resources and expertise to use.

(b) Explain testing the validity of models.

Testing the validity of models is an important step in the model development process and is used to determine the accuracy and reliability of a model. There are several methods that can be used to test the validity of a model, including:

Comparison With Observational Data: One of the most common ways to test the validity of a model is to compare the model's outputs with observational data from the real world. For example, a climate model could be tested by comparing its simulations of past temperature and precipitation with actual temperature and precipitation data. This allows scientists to determine how well the model reproduces observed climate conditions and to identify any biases or errors in the model.

Sensitivity Tests: Sensitivity tests are used to determine how sensitive a model is to changes in certain model parameters or inputs. This allows scientists to identify which parameters or inputs have the greatest impact on the model's outputs and to determine the range of conditions under which the model is most reliable.

Ensemble Simulations: Ensemble simulations involve running a model multiple times with slightly different initial conditions and model parameters. This allows scientists to estimate the range of possible outcomes and to assess the level of uncertainty in the model's predictions.

Model Intercomparison: Model intercomparison involves comparing the results from different models that have been developed independently. This allows scientists to evaluate the level of agreement between different models and to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each model.

Verification And Validation: Verification is the process of evaluating the model's solution against an independent observational dataset or analytical solution, to ensure the solution is accurate. While validation is the process of evaluating the performance of the model for some specific applications, or against observational data or other independent measurements, to ensure that the model is relevant to the problem it is supposed to solve.

(c) Enlist and explain the various types of models used for modeling the climate.

There are several types of models used for modeling the climate, including:

General Circulation Models (GCMs): These are complex computer models that simulate the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and sea ice. GCMs are used to make global climate predictions and are the primary tool used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to make projections of future climate change.

Regional Climate Models (RCMs): These models are similar to GCMs, but they are designed to focus on a specific region or area of the globe. RCMs are used to make more detailed predictions of regional climate change, such as changes in precipitation patterns or temperature extremes.

Earth System Models (ESMs): These models are an extension of GCMs and include additional components to simulate the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, sea ice, and the biosphere. ESMs are used to study the Earth's climate system as a whole, including the effects of human activities on the climate.

Empirical Models : These models are based on observational data and statistical relationships, these are used for understanding the relationship between different variables and to make projections based on past data.

Dynamical Downscaling Models : These models use data from GCMs or RCMs to provide higher resolution predictions of regional climate change, by running the models at a higher spatial resolution.

Process-based Models : These models are used to study the physical processes that drive the climate system, such as cloud formation or ocean circulation.

All of these models have their own strengths and limitations, and scientists often use a combination of different models to study the climate.

OR

Q.4 (a) How has climate change created an impact on India.

Climate change has had a significant impact on India. Some of the key ways in which climate change has affected India include:

Temperature Rise: India has experienced an overall warming trend, with an increase in both maximum and minimum temperatures. This has led to more heat waves and increased heat stress, which can have serious health consequences.

Extreme Weather Events: India has seen an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and cyclones. These events can cause widespread damage and loss of life, and also have severe economic impacts.

Agriculture: Climate change is affecting India's agriculture sector, through changes in temperature, precipitation and increased frequency of extreme weather events. This impacts crop yields and food security.

Water Resources: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation due to higher temperatures are affecting water resources in India. This is leading to increased water stress, particularly in areas that are already water-scarce.

Health: Climate change is affecting health in India through increased heat stress, air pollution, and the spread of disease. It is also exacerbating existing health problems such as malnutrition and respiratory illness.

Sea Level Rise: The sea level rise due to global warming is a major concern for India, as it has a long coastline and many low-lying areas. This will lead to increased coastal flooding, erosion and saltwater intrusion, which will affect the livelihoods of millions of people living in coastal areas.

Overall, climate change is a major threat to India's development and its ability to provide for its population. The country is taking steps to mitigate the impact of climate change and to adapt to the changes that are already happening.

(b) Explain the concept of Carbon Capture and Sequestration.

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is a technology that aims to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from power plants and other industrial sources by capturing the CO2 before it is released into the atmosphere, and then storing it underground.

The process of CCS involves three main steps:

Carbon capture: CO2 is captured from the flue gas of power plants or other industrial sources using a variety of technologies. These include post-combustion capture, pre-combustion capture, and Oxy-fuel combustion.

Carbon Transport: The captured CO2 is then transported to a storage site, typically by pipeline.

Carbon storage: The CO2 is then injected into deep underground rock formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or unmineable coal seams, where it is stored in a stable and secure manner.

CCS is considered as one of the most promising technologies for reducing CO2 emissions from power plants and other industrial sources. It has the potential to significantly reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and slow down the pace of climate change. However, CCS is an expensive technology and still in the development stage, thus it's not yet widely used.

It's also worth noting that CCS is not a standalone solution to climate change, but rather, it's a technology that can be used as a part of a comprehensive strategy to reduce emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change.

(c) An estimate of the average rise in sea level is a useful measure of the future impact of global warming in terms of damage to property and loss of life. Justify the statement.

An estimate of the average rise in sea level is a useful measure of the future impact of global warming because it can help to predict the potential damage to property and loss of life that may occur as a result of coastal flooding and storm surges.

Sea-level rise is caused by the thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets. As the sea level rises, it can cause coastal flooding, which can damage buildings, infrastructure, and other property. It can also lead to the displacement of people living in low-lying areas, as well as loss of life in severe cases.

Furthermore, as sea level rises, it increases the height and extent of storm surges, which can cause even more damage and loss of life. Storm surges are the abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tide. They can cause devastating flooding in coastal areas, particularly during tropical cyclones or hurricanes.

Additionally, sea-level rise also exacerbates the erosion of coastlines, as well as saltwater intrusion in freshwater aquifers, affecting the livelihoods of millions of people living in coastal areas.

Therefore, by estimating the average rise in sea level, scientists and policy makers can better predict the potential impacts of climate change on coastal communities and take steps to reduce the risk of damage and loss of life. This is important for coastal planning, infrastructure design, and disaster management.

Q.5 

(A) Explain Global Warming In Brief.

Global warming refers to the gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun, causing the planet's temperature to rise. This increase in temperature can lead to a variety of negative effects, such as more frequent and severe heat waves, droughts, and storms, rising sea levels, and changes in weather patterns and precipitation. It also cause impacts on wildlife and ecosystems and potentially cause extinction of some species.

(b) List the models used for CO2 storage through EOR. Explain any one.

There are several models used for CO2 storage through Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), some of which include:

Miscible Displacement: This is a process in which CO2 is injected into an oil reservoir to create a miscible fluid that can displace the oil and increase its recovery. The CO2 acts as a solvent, lowering the viscosity of the oil and making it easier to extract.

Immiscible Displacement: This process involves injecting CO2 into an oil reservoir in an immiscible state, which means that the CO2 and oil do not mix together. The CO2 is less dense than the oil, so it pushes the oil out of the reservoir and increases the recovery rate.

Thermally-assisted gravity drainage (TAGD): This method involves heating the oil in the reservoir by injecting CO2 that has been preheated to high temperatures. The heat causes the oil to expand and become less viscous, making it easier to extract.

Co2 Huff-puff: This method involves injecting CO2 into the reservoir and then quickly shutting off the injection, causing the CO2 to expand and push the oil to the production well.

I can explain one of the model in detail:

Miscible Displacement : This is a process in which CO2 is injected into an oil reservoir to create a miscible fluid that can displace the oil and increase its recovery. The CO2 acts as a solvent, lowering the viscosity of the oil and making it easier to extract. The process of miscible displacement is similar to primary or secondary recovery methods, but the injected fluid is a liquid CO2 which is miscible with the oil. The CO2 is injected into the reservoir at a pressure greater than the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP), this causes the oil to become more fluid, and more oil is displaced to the production well. When the CO2 reaches the production well, it is separated and re-injected into the reservoir in a closed-loop process. This process is known to increase oil recovery by 10-15%.

(c) Write a detailed note on the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that was adopted in 1997 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The goal of the protocol is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to mitigate the effects of global warming. The protocol sets legally binding emissions reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European Community.

Under the protocol, countries that have committed to emissions reductions are required to monitor and report their emissions to the UNFCCC. These countries are also required to submit a national inventory of their emissions and removals of greenhouse gases. The protocol also includes provisions for "carbon sinks," such as forests, which can absorb carbon dioxide and offset emissions.

The protocol's emissions reduction targets are based on a country's emissions levels in 1990, and the targets vary from country to country. The protocol's first commitment period, from 2008 to 2012, required developed countries to reduce their emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels.

The Kyoto Protocol has been ratified by 197 countries, including all of the 37 industrialized countries that are required to meet emissions reduction targets. However, the United States, which is one of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases, did not ratify the protocol.

The Protocol is seen as a first step towards a comprehensive global agreement to address climate change, as it only covered developed countries and did not include developing countries, which are also significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2017, the Paris Agreement was adopted as a follow-up to the Kyoto Protocol and replaced it, which aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.

OR

Q.5 (a) Enlist the important findings of IPCC AR5. 

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was published in 2013 and 2014 and contains the most comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of climate change science. Some of the key findings of the report include:

Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia.

The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen.

The warming of the climate system is primarily caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.

Climate change will have severe and widespread impacts on human and natural systems, including increased frequency of heat waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation events, and increased risk of floods and wildfires.

The impacts of climate change will disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, including low-income communities and developing countries.

Adaptation and mitigation are both necessary to address the impacts of climate change, and immediate action is required to reduce emissions and increase the ability of societies to adapt to the changes that are already occurring.

There are many options available to reduce emissions and increase resilience to climate change, but they need to be implemented quickly and at a significant scale to be effective.

The use of fossil fuels remains the primary source of greenhouse gas emissions and it is essential to phase out fossil fuel use, to achieve near zero emissions in the second half of the century.

Delaying action to reduce emissions will increase the costs and challenges of achieving long-term climate goals.

Overall, the report provides a comprehensive view of the state of the science of climate change, and emphasizes the urgent need for action to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of a warming planet. 

(b) Explain Environmental economics as a part of Climate change policies and legislation. 

Environmental economics is a subfield of economics that studies the relationship between the economy and the environment. It is an important part of climate change policies and legislation because it helps to understand how economic incentives and market forces can be used to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Environmental economics can be used to design policies and regulations that put a price on carbon emissions, such as carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems. These policies create an economic incentive for businesses and individuals to reduce their emissions by making it more expensive to pollute. Additionally, environmental economics can be used to evaluate the costs and benefits of different policy options, such as investments in renewable energy or energy efficiency.

Environmental economics also plays a role in the design of adaptation policies, which aim to reduce the negative impacts of climate change on human and natural systems. For example, environmental economists can analyze the costs and benefits of building sea walls to protect against sea level rise, or of drought-resistant crops to adapt to changing precipitation patterns.

Environmental economics is also used to evaluate the economic impacts of climate change, such as the costs of extreme weather events, sea level rise, and other consequences of a warming planet. These assessments can help decision-makers understand the economic costs of inaction and the benefits of taking action to reduce emissions and adapt to climate change.

Furthermore, environmental economics also explores the concept of "green growth" which is a path to sustainable development that aims to combine economic growth and environmental protection. This approach can help to balance economic, social and environmental objectives, for instance by investing in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable transport, which can create jobs, lower energy costs and improve air quality.

Overall, environmental economics provides an important perspective for understanding the economic aspects of climate change and for designing effective policies to address it.

(c) Draw a neat and labeled diagram of global carbon cycle and explain it.  

The global carbon cycle is the movement of carbon atoms through the Earth's atmosphere, oceans, land, and living organisms. The carbon cycle is important because it helps to regulate the Earth's climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in various forms.

The main components of the global carbon cycle are:

The atmosphere: Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere in small concentrations, where it acts as a greenhouse gas and traps heat from the sun, warming the planet.

The oceans: The oceans store large amounts of carbon in the form of dissolved carbon dioxide, which is used by marine organisms to build their shells and skeletons.

Land-based Ecosystems: Plants and other organisms on land store carbon in the form of biomass, such as leaves, roots, and wood.

Fossil Fuels: Carbon is stored in fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.

The carbon cycle is driven by various processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, and the burning of fossil fuels.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other organisms convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds and oxygen. This process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores it in the form of biomass.

Respiration is the process by which organisms convert organic compounds back into carbon dioxide and water. This process releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide that was stored in the Earth's crust for millions of years back into the atmosphere.

Human activities such as deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, and land use change also affect the carbon cycle by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and changing the way carbon is stored in land-based ecosystems. Climate change caused by the anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases causes the carbon cycle to speed up, which in turn causes the temperature to rise and the climate to change.

Overall, the global carbon cycle is a complex system that plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in various forms. However, human activities are disrupting the carbon cycle by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which is contributing to climate change.